Phosphatidylinositol (3,4)-bisphosphate (PtdIns(3,4)''P''₂) is a minor

phospholipid Phospholipids, are a class of lipids whose molecule has a hydrophilic "head" containing a phosphate group and two hydrophobic "tails" derived from fatty acids, joined by an alcohol residue (usually a glycerol molecule). Marine phospholipids typ ...

component of cell membranes, yet an important

second messenger Second messengers are intracellular signaling molecules released by the cell in response to exposure to extracellular signaling molecules—the first messengers. (Intercellular signals, a non-local form or cell signaling, encompassing both first me ...

. The generation of PtdIns(3,4)''P''₂ at the

plasma membrane The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane (PM) or cytoplasmic membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological membrane that separates and protects the interior of all cells from the outside environment (t ...

activates a number of important cell signaling pathways. Of all the phospholipids found within the membrane, inositol phospholipids make up less than 10%. Phosphoinositide’s (PI’s) also known as phosphatidylinositol phosphates, are synthesized in the cells endoplasmic reticulum by the protein phosphatidylinositol synthase (PIS). PI’s are highly compartmentalized, their main components include a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid chains enriched with stearic acid and arachidonic acid, and an inositol ring whose phosphate groups regulation differs between organelles depending on the specific PI and PIP kinases and PIP phosphatases present in the organelle (Image 1). These kinases and phosphatases conduct phosphorylation and dephosphorylation at the inositol sugar head groups 3’, 4’, and 5’ positions, producing differing phosphoinositides, including PtdIns(3,4)P2 (Image 2). PI kinases catalyze phosphate groups binding while PI phosphatases remove phosphate groups at the three positions on the PI inositol ring, giving seven different combinations of PI’s. PtdIns(3,4)''P''₂ is dephophosphorylated by the

phosphatase In biochemistry, a phosphatase is an enzyme that uses water to cleave a phosphoric acid Ester, monoester into a phosphate ion and an Alcohol (chemistry), alcohol. Because a phosphatase enzyme catalysis, catalyzes the hydrolysis of its Substrate ...

INPP4B on the 4 position of the

inositol Inositol, or more precisely ''myo''-inositol, is a carbocyclic sugar that is abundant in the brain and other mammalian tissues; it mediates cell signal transduction in response to a variety of hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors and ...

ring and by the

TPTE Putative tyrosine-protein phosphatase TPTE is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ''TPTE'' gene. Function TPTE is a member of a large class of membrane-associated phosphatases with substrate specificity for the 3-position phosphate of i ...

(transmembrane phosphatases with tensin homology) family of phosphatases on the 3 position of the inositol ring. The

PH domain In chemistry, pH (), historically denoting "potential of hydrogen" (or "power of hydrogen"), is a scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Acidic solutions (solutions with higher concentrations of ions) are mea ...

in a number of proteins binds to PtdIns(3,4)''P''₂ including the PH domain in PKB. The generation of PtdIns(3,4)''P''₂ at the

upon the activation of class I PI 3-kinases and

SHIP A ship is a large watercraft that travels the world's oceans and other sufficiently deep waterways, carrying cargo or passengers, or in support of specialized missions, such as defense, research, and fishing. Ships are generally distinguished ...

phosphatases causes these proteins to translocate to the plasma membrane, thereby affecting their activity. Class I and II phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks) synthesize PtdIns(3,4)P2 by phosphorylating the phosphoinositide PI4P’s 3-OH position. Phosphatases SHIP1 and SH2-containing inositol 5’-polyphosphatases (SHIP2) produce PtdIns(3,4)P2 through desphosphorylation of PtdIns(3,4,5)P3’s 5’ inositol ring position. In addition to these positive regulators at the plasma membrane (PM), 3-phosphatase tensin homolog (PTEN) acts as a negative regulator of PtdIns(3,4)P2 production by depleting PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 levels at the PM through dephosphorylation of PtdIns(3,4,5)P3’s 3’ inositol ring position, giving rise to PtdIns(4,5)P2. Inositol polyphosphate 4-phosphatase isozymes, INPP4A and INPP4B, also act as negative PtdIns(3,4)P2 regulators, though through a more direct interaction- by hydrolyzing PtdIns(3,4)P2’s 4-phosphate, producing PI3P. PtdIns(3,4)P2 has been indicated to be critical for AKT (Protein kinase B, PKB https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_kinase_B) activation within the PI3K pathway through the PI’s regulation by the SHIP1 and 2 phosphatases. Akt is recruited and subsequently activated through its PH domains interaction with PtdIns(3,4)P2 and PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 both of which have shown to have high affinity with the Akt PH domain. Once bound to the PM through its interaction with PtdIns(3,4)P2 and PtdIns(3,4,5)P3, Akt is activated through release of its auto-inhibitory interaction between the PH and kinase domains. Following this release, T308 in the proteins activation loop and S437 in the proteins hydrophobic domain are phosphorylated by Phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1 (PDK1) and mechanistic target of Rapamycin Complex 2 (mTORC2), respectively. Test tube experiments have shown that the essential recruitment of PDK1 for Akt activation at the PM can be driven through interactions with both PtdIns(3,4)P2 and PtdIns(3,4,5)P3. It was originally presumed that 5-phosphatases dephosphorylation of PI(3,4,5)P3 would be anti-tumoral, similar to tumor suppressor PTEN. Yet the 5-phosphatase SHIP proteins synthesis of PI(3,4)P2 has been linked to tumor cell survival due to the lipid’s binding and subsequent activation of Akt. Akt activation causes downstream metabolism alterations, apoptosis suppression and a rise in cell proliferation. This pathway and its effects have shown up in 50% of cancers. In conjunction, investigators have shown a rise in PI(3,4)P2 levels and mutation of 4-phosphatase INPP4B has shown mammary epithelial transformation. Recently, PtdIns(3,4)P2 has been shown to play an important role in vesicle maturation during clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor-mediated_endocytosis). PtdIns(4)P synthesizing phosphatases SHIP2 and synaptojanin are recruited to clathrin structures at the beginning of the CME process. This production of PtdIns(4)P subsequently leads to PtdIns(3,4)P2 synthesis through PI3K-C2α11, and the newly synthesized PtdIns(3,4)P2 then recruits SNX9 and SNX18 PX-BAR domain proteins which narrow the nascent vesicles neck to eventually be cut and released by dynamin, forming vesicles. PI(3,4)P2 plays another possible role at the PM, promoting cytoskeletal rearrangements through actin regulatory proteins like Lamellipodin. Lamellipodin is recruited to the PM where it is believed to interact with PI(3,4)P2 through its PH domain. Once at the PM, it can regulate lamellipodia actin networks and cell migration by interacting with actin-binding proteins like Ena/VASP.(22)Kato T, Kawai K, Egami Y, Kakehi Y, Araki N. Rac1-dependent lamellipodial motility in prostate cancer PC-3 cells revealed by optogenetic control of Rac1 activity. PLoS ONE. (2014) 9:e97749. 10.1371/journal.pone.0097749

References

Phospholipids {{Cell-biology-stub